Learning Theories

Category: Learning Theories & Models

General learning theories, learning models, and other instructional theories.

  • Dunning-Krueger Effect

    Dunning-Krueger Effect

    The Dunning-Krueger Effect is a cognitive bias that provides people with limited competence the illusion that they are better than they actually are; in other words, people naturally overestimate their own lack of ability (one is blind to their own foolishness) in “Mount Stupid.”

    Originators: Social psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger (1999)

    Summary:

    A quote often attributed to Aristotle is that “The more you know, the more you realize you don’t know.” Social psychologists Dunning and Kruger identified in a 1999 study entitled “Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One’s Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments” this phenomenon of “illusory superiority.”  In four experiments, the researchers found that those who performed worst on tests were overconfident — they actually believed they had done well.  For instance, in a humor-oriented test, 65 participants were asked to rate how funny different jokes were.  They were extremely poor at being able to determine what other people would find humorous – and yet they described themselves as being excellent judges of humor.

    This effect, unfortunately, can have major implications on human decision-making and actions.

    References

    Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of personality and social psychology, 77(6), 1121.

     

  • Confirmation Bias (Wason)

    Confirmation Bias (Wason)

    Summary: Confirmation bias is a cognitive error that people make when they are only willing to accept new information when it confirms what they already believe (i.e., aligns with their existing beliefs and values). People who fall into the trap of confirmation bias tend to purposefully seek out evidence that supports already solidified beliefs and purposefully reject any evidence that goes against those beliefs.  In this way, existing opinions are reinforced as any contradictory information is disregarded.  This phenomenon is generally unconscious, as people may not realize that this tendency is occurring.

    Originator: Peter Wason (1924-2003)

    Keywords: inductive reasoning, confirmatory bias, myside bias, verification bias, interpretation, primacy effect, belief persistency, Pollyanna principle

    Confirmation bias was first described in the 1960s, when several studies completed by the psychologist Peter Wason showed that people tend to seek out confirming evidence alone when drawing conclusions about simple tasks.[i]

    In one of Wason’s first studies, subjects were told by the experimenter that they would be given “three numbers which confirm to a simple rule that I have in mind.” The subjects were asked to come up with an initial hypothesis of what they thought the rule was. They were then invited to write down sets of numbers that they believed conformed to the rule. The experimenter would then tell them if the numbers conformed to the rule or not, and the subjects could note the outcome. The subjects were allowed to repeat this procedure until they believed they had figured out the rule.

    Wason was surprised that more than half of his subjects were unable to figure out the simple rule using this method. He believed these people failed because they only tested examples of the numbers that conformed to their original hypothesis. Additionally, they were unwilling to test examples that went against their original hypothesis. Wason coined the term “confirmation bias” and continued to study this cognitive error throughout his career.

    Further Research

    Research on confirmation bias has continued over the decades, showing a number of interesting results that are detailed as follows.[ii]

    • In general, when developing opinions on a topic, people primarily look for positive cases and resist negative cases.
    • When people make a hypothesis about something, they typically need less evidence for the hypothesis to accept it than evidence against the hypothesis to reject it.
    • People tend to see what they are looking for, even if it’s not there. When people look through data they often find evidence to support their beliefs in ways that are not consistent with actual patterns in the evidence.
    • To confirm their beliefs, people often look at data that is correlated and perceive a higher correlation than is actually present.
    • People have a tendency to believe things that are desirable. This is known as the Pollyanna principle.
    • The more strongly people hold to a belief and the more overconfident they are in that belief, the more likely they are to fall into confirmation bias.
    • People tend to hold on to first impressions, even if future information refutes the original evidence.

    Relevant Issues

    Confirmation bias is an important issue to understand because of how much it plays into relevant social issues. Confirmation bias impacts peoples’ views on social issues such as race, capital punishment, politics, religion, women’s rights, climate change, vaccinations, and more. The impact of confirmation bias is extensive, leading to many problems and misplaced ideas. Because of this, understanding the concepts behind confirmation bias is crucial for people of all ages and in all walks of life.

    This bias is evident in political debates and as people research and discuss controversial topics.  It can help explain why people tend to become polarized or entrenched in their original points of view — for example, when the same content or evidence is presented to two different people with opposing viewpoints.

    References 

    [i] Wason, P. C. (1960). On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 129-140.

    [ii] Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220.

  • Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

    Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

    Summary: Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context and culture.

    Originator: Jean Lave[1]

    Key Terms: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP), Cognitive Apprenticeship

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  • Stereotype Threat (Steele, Aronson)

    Summary: Stereotype threat is a phenomenon that occurs when people are at risk for living up to a negative stereotype about their group. For example, a woman may fail to reach her career goal of being a scientist because of how she changes her behavior in response to perceptions about her own gender.

    Originators: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson

    Keywords: stereotypes, vulnerability, self-defeating behavior, performance, gender, race, intelligence

    Stereotype threat is a term that was created by social scientists Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson. They completed an important early study in 1995 which defined stereotype threat as “being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group.”[i]

    In this study, Steele and Aronson observed the performance of Black and White students on academic tests. Steele and Aronson created the study in response to a negative stereotype about Black students which pervades culture – Black students are portrayed as less intelligent and less competent than White students. Because of this stereotype, Steele and Aronson wondered if Black students would “protectively dis-identify with achievement in school and related intellectual domains.” This desire to disengage from intellectual pursuits could possible lead Black students to live up to their negative stereotype.

    The results of the study confirmed the researcher’s suspicion. When test instructors emphasized the role of race before the test, researchers found that Black students performed worse than White students. When instructors did not emphasize race, Black and White students performed equally well.

    In essence, stereotype threat occurs when people fear that they will live up to a negative stereotype about their group. In response to their fear, they participate in disengaging and self-defeating behaviors that ironically cause them to live up to the feared stereotype.

    Stereotype Threat Impacts Peoples’ Behavior

    Stereotype threat has been shown to impact peoples’ behavior in the following ways.[ii]

    • Reduced effort – People who fear they might live up to a stereotype sometimes reduce their effort so they can have an excuse if they fall into that stereotype. For example, people may not prepare for a test so they have an excuse when they do poorly.
    • Disengaging – People who are stereotypically not good at something (such as woman in mathematics) will often disengage from that field or area.
    • Changing aspirations and career goals – Some people go as far as to change their life aspirations and career goals in response to stereotype threat.


    How to Reduce Stereotype Threat

    Stereotype threat has been studied extensively, with a heavy emphasis on how to reduce this phenomenon in various populations. Research shows that the following strategies can be effective. Many of these are practical strategies that can be carried out in classrooms and other settings.

    • Providing role models. People who observe role models from their group engaging in certain fields and activities are more likely to think they can do the same thing. One study showed that woman who read about other woman who had succeeded in fields of architecture, law, medicine, and intervention performed better on a mathematics test than those who didn’t.[iii]
    • Encouraging self-affirmation – One study showed that having African students engage in a self-affirming journal exercise before the start of a semester closed the racial achievement gap by 40%.[iv]
    • Emphasizing motivation and effort – African American students who were taught that intelligence is “a malleable rather than fixed capacity” that can be increased through motivation and effort received better grades than those who were not taught this.[v]

    Although stereotype threat is a significant concern for many vulnerable groups of people, research consistently shows that the effects of stereotype threat can be reduced through following strategies such as these.[v]

    Over three hundred studies have investigated stereotype threat in a wide variety of areas.[vi]

    References

    [i] Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811.

    [ii] Stroessner, S. & Good, C. (n.d.) Stereotype threat: An overview. Retrieved from http://diversity.arizona.edu/sites/diversity/files/stereotype_threat_overview.pdf

    [iii] McIntyre, R. B., Paulson, R., & Lord, C. (2003). Alleviating women’s mathematics stereotype threat through salience of group achievements. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 83-90.

    [iv] Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N. & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention. Science, 313, 1307-1310.

    [v] Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125.

    [vi] Stroessner, Steve; Good, Catherine. “Stereotype Threat: An Overview”. diversity.arizona.edu. Reducing Stereotype Threat.org. Retrieved 6 March 2011.

  • Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)

    Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)

    Summary: A cognitive theory of multimedia learning based on three main assumptions: there are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information; there is limited channel capacity; and that learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information.

    Originator: Richard Mayer (1947-)

    Key terms: dual-channel, limited capacity, sensory, working, long-term memory

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  • Intrinsically motivating instruction (Malone)

    Intrinsically motivating instruction (Malone)

    Summary: Intrinsically motivating instruction takes place in computer gaming software when it provides players with choice around three key categories: challenge, curiosity, and fantasy.

    Originators and Key Contributors: Thomas W. Malone

    Keywords: challenge, choice, computer games, curiosity, fantasy, intrinsic motivation

    Intrinsically Motivating Instruction

    In trying to understand what made computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) fun and engaging, Dr. Thomas W. Malone studied computer games[1]. In doing so, Malone developed a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. The three categories which comprise his theory are challenge, fantasy, and curiosity[2].

    Challenge: Each challenge must have a series of goals, which can be personally meaningful to the player and/or may be generated by the game to keep the player engaged. The game provides the player feedback on progress toward the goal throughout the game play. Because the computer game’s outcome is uncertain, this keeps the player engaged and motivated. When a player is challenged and succeeds through the struggle, a player’s self-esteem can increase, as long as the computer game’s feedback is constructive and supports learning. An optimal challenge should be neither too difficult nor too easy.

    Fantasy: Malone defines fantasy as the “mental images” the players create based on interacting with the environment. The most effective fantasies in computer games are those which are more fully integrated with the content to be learned (intrinsic). Incorporating intrinsic fantasies creates more engagement, which increases memory of the material, because they may satisfy players’ emotional needs and help them learn skills within a meaningful context. (An example that Malone describes is an Adventure game where players practice reading maps, writing instructions, and feeling excited, puzzled, and triumphant as they proceed through it.)

    Curiosity: Two types of curiosity are important to successful computer game creation—sensory and cognitive. Sensory curiosity is activated by the aesthetics of the game (its look, sounds, feedback, authentic creation of a world or event). Cognitive curiosity is activated by presenting opportunities for the player to better their knowledge.

    When a computer game is designed based on this framework, players are more motivated to play and learn[3].

    References

    1. Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5(4), 333-369.
    2. Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 3(1987), 223-253.
    3. Lepper, M. R., & Malone, T. W. (1987). Intrinsic motivation and instructional effectiveness in computer-based education. Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 3, 255-286.
  • Positive Psychology / PERMA Theory (Seligman)

    Positive Psychology / PERMA Theory (Seligman)

    Summary: Positive psychology is the study of happiness, flourishing, and what makes life worth living.  Seligman points to five factors as leading to well-being  — positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishment.

    Originators and key contributors:

    • Martin Seligman (1942-the present), American psychologist, founder of positive psychology
    • Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1934-the present), Hungarian-American psychologist, co-founder of positive psychology, researched the concept of “Flow”
    • Christopher Peterson (1950- 2012), American psychologist, The “VIA” and other topics in positive psychology

    Keywords: flow, character strengths, well-being, happiness, positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishment

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  • 21st Century Skills (P21 and others)

    21st Century Skills (P21 and others)

    Summary: Skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly digital and connected age; includes digital literacy, traditional literacy, content knowledge, media literacy, and learning/innovation skills.

    Originators & Proponents: Groups – United States Department of Education, Partnership for 21st Century Skills, MacArthur Foundation; Individuals – Henry Jenkins[1], Mimi Ito, John Seely Brown

    Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills, readiness, interdisciplinary learning, problem-solving, ICT (information and communication technologies)

    21st Century Skills (Partnership for 21st Century Skills and other groups and individuals)

    The 21st Century Skills initiative is an education standards and reform movement, located primarily in the United States, that is focused on improving what US public school students must learn in school so that they are better prepared to succeed in their school and career lives. The term “21st century skills” includes the following skill sets:

    • Life/career skills: adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership & responsibility, productivity & accountability, social & cross-cultural skills
    • Core subjects: English/language arts, mathematics, arts, science, history, geography and others
    • 21st century themes: civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial  literacy (including economic, business, and entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy
    • Information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy
    • Learning/innovation skills: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, problem solving

    Students are expected to master these skills and understand these themes while learning core subject content in meaningful, interdisciplinary way. Teachers, administrators, schools, and districts are expected to use these guidelines, known as the P21 Framework, as a foundation for developing curriculum, assessments, and standards that they deem appropriate for their students.

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  • Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom)

    Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom)

    Bloom’s Taxonomy is a model that is a hierarchy — a way to classify thinking according to six cognitive levels of complexity.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Benjamin S. Bloom (1913-1999)

    Key Concepts

    Bloom’s model consists of six levels, with the three lower levels (knowledge, comprehension, and application) being more basic than the higher levels (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)[1]. Some think of the levels as a stairway, in which learners are encouraged to achieve a higher level of thinking. If a student has mastered a higher level, then he or she is considered to have mastered the levels below.

    Bloom’s model has been updated to account for 21st century needs[2]. The old model and new model are depicted below.

    Old Model

    null

    New Model

    null

    Additional Resources and References

    References

    1. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.
    2. Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., & Bloom, B. S. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Allyn & Bacon.

  • Andragogy – Adult Learning Theory (Knowles)

    Summary: Andragogy refers to a theory of adult learning that details some of the ways in which adults learn differently than children. For example, adults tend to be more self-directed, internally motivated, and ready to learn. Teachers can draw on concepts of andragogy to increase the effectiveness of their adult education classes.

    Originator: Malcom Shepherd Knowles (1913-1997)

    Keywords: learning, learning theory, adults, education, self-directive, self-concept, experiences, readiness, motivation, content, process, practical learning

    Andragogy (Adult Learning Theory)

    Andragogy, also known as adult learning theory, was proposed by Malcom Shepard Knowles in 1968.[i] Previously, much research and attention had been given to the concept of pedagogy – teaching children. Knowles recognized that there are many differences in the ways that adults learn as opposed to children. His thoughts surrounding andragogy sought to capitalize on the unique learning styles and strengths of adult learners.

    Knowles’ Five Assumptions of Adult Learners

    Knowles theory of andragogy identified five assumptions that teachers should make about adult learners.

    1. Self-Concept – Because adults are at a mature developmental stage, they have a more secure self-concept than children. This allows them to take part in directing their own learning.
    2. Past Learning Experience – Adults have a vast array of experiences to draw on as they learn, as opposed to children who are in the process of gaining new experiences.
    3. Readiness to Learn – Many adults have reached a point in which they see the value of education and are ready to be serious about and focused on learning.
    4. Practical Reasons to Learn – Adults are looking for practical, problem-centered approaches to learning. Many adults return to continuing education for specific practical reasons, such as entering a new field.
    5. Driven by Internal Motivation – While many children are driven by external motivators – such as punishment if they get bad grades or rewards if they get good grades – adults are more internally motivated.

    Four Principles of Andragogy

    Based on these assumptions about adult learners, Knowles discussed four principles that educators should consider when teaching adults.

    1. Since adults are self-directed, they should have a say in the content and process of their learning.
    2. Because adults have so much experience to draw from, their learning should focus on adding to what they have already learned in the past.
    3. Since adults are looking for practical learning, content should focus on issues related to their work or personal life.
    4. Additionally, learning should be centered on solving problems instead of memorizing content.

    Current Applications  

    In later years, Knowles would recognize that some points in his theory did not apply to all adults. In addition, some of what he wrote about education could also apply to children. He began to see learning on a spectrum between teacher-directed and student-directed. In his later work, he emphasized how each situation should be assessed on an individual basis to determine how much self-direction would be helpful for students.

    Andragogy has received critique over the years, as some of its assumptions have not been empirically proven.[ii] However, many researchers believe that the self-directed approach to learning discussed by Knowles is applicable in a number of settings.

    For example, online learning can benefit from Knowle’s discussion of self-directive learning, as students often receive less supervision from teachers in an online environment.

    Other researchers have used androgagy to consider how lectures can become more effective modes of learning through more actively engaging adult students. For example, teachers can use Socratic dialogue, small group discussions, and student-led teaching to make lectures more self-directive and engaging.[iii]

    References 

    [i] Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. Merriam, S. B. (Ed.), The new update on adult learning theory: New directions for adult and continuing education. (pp.1-13)

    [ii] Blondy, L.C. (2007). Evaluation and application of andragogical assumptions to the adult online learning environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(2), 116-130

    [iii] Palis, A. G. & Quiros, P. A. (2014). Adult learning principles and presentation pearls. Middle East African Journal of Opthamology, 21(2), 114-122.