Learning Theories

Author: David L

  • Identity Status Theory (Marcia)

    Identity Status Theory (Marcia)

    Refining and extending Erik Erikson’s work, James Marcia came up with four Identity Statuses of psychological identity development. The main idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References


    Contributors

    • James Marcia

    Key Concepts

    Based on Erik Erikson’s groundbreaking work on identity and psychosocial development in the 1960s, Canadian developmental psychologist James Marcia refined and extended Erikson’s model, primarily focusing on adolescent development[1][2]. Addressing Erikson’s notion of identity crisis, Marcia posited that the adolescent stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion, but rather the degree to which one has explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains from vocation, religion, relational choices, gender roles, and so on. Marcia’s theory of identity achievement argues that two distinct parts form an adolescent’s identity: crisis (i. e. a time when one’s values and choices are being reevaluated) and commitment. He defined a crisis as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined. The end outcome of a crisis leads to a commitment made to a certain role or value.

    Identity Statuses of psychological identity development

    Upon developing a semi-structured interview for identity research, Marcia proposed Identity Statuses of psychological identity development:

    • Identity Diffusion – the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment
    • Identity Foreclosure – the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options.
    • Identity Moratorium – the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet.
    • Identity Achievement – the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen

    Note that the above status are not stages and should not viewed as a sequential process.

    Identity Formation Process

    The core idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits. The work done in this paradigm considers how much one has made certain choices, and how much he or she displays a commitment to those choices. Identity involves the adoption of 1) a sexual orientation, 2) a set of values and ideals and 3) a vocational direction. A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one’s strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness. A person with a less well-developed identity is not able to define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses, and does not have a well articulated sense of self.

    To better understand the identity formation process, Marcia conducted interviews with young people. He asked whether the participants in his study (1) had established a commitment to an occupation and ideology and (2) had experienced, or were presently experiencing, a decision making period (adolescent identity crisis). Marcia developed a framework for thinking about identity in terms of four identity statuses.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    • Marcia et al.: Ego Identity: A Handbook for Psychosocial Research: This useful book contains an integrated presentation of identity theory, including literature reviews that span hundreds of of research studies, a discussion of the techniques of interviewing for psychosocial constructs, and model Identity Status Interviews and scoring manuals for a variety of age groups.
    • Schwartz et al.: Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set]: This impressive handbook brings “unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented literature.” presenting perspectives from many different theoretical schools and empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative, social identity theory, neo-Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science, ethnic studies).

    References

    1. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status.Journal of personality and social psychology, 3(5), 551.
    2. Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of adolescent psychology, 9(11), 159-187.
  • EcoChains: A Food Web Game to Teach Climate Change

    EcoChains: A Food Web Game to Teach Climate Change


    Social science research shows that teaching climate change in way that emphasizes “doom and gloom” and scary facts does not motivate people to engage in the issue, and often leads to feelings of helplessness, fear, or guilt (CUSP, 2017).  Facts alone are often not enough to get people to learn or care about the issue.

    The Need for New Ways to Teach Climate Change

    Can a game be an effective way to get a person to develop empathy, learn about, or shift attitudes through a firsthand experience?  A review of interactive media tools by published in Nature Climate Change journal found that games can be a promising approach to teach, persuade or change attitudes on the climate change and caring for the environment.

    EcoChains: A Food Web Game to Teach Climate Change

    EcoChains is a food web card game to teach climate change.  Developed by Joey Lee (game designer and educational technology professor at Columbia University) and Stephanie Pfirman (environmental science professor at Barnard College), the game is meant to be fun and work both in classrooms and at home for game night.

    EcoChains: Arctic Life is a simple two player game that involves 3 main steps:

    1. Build food chains by connecting Arctic species cards at the corners — predators eat prey.  For example, polar bear can eat ringed seals.
    2. Ensure animals have enough sea ice at the base of their food chains to survive.  Polar bears, for instance, need 3 sea ice cards at the bottom of their food chain.
    3. Carbon pollution events melt sea ice, which sometimes causes migration and death.  These cards randomly come out as events which affect all players.

    Here is a video that explains the game.

    The two player version of the card game, EcoChains: Arctic Life, is available now for about $9 at Amazon.

  • Utilitarianism (Consequence-based Ethics)

    One of the most influential ethical frameworks, utilitarianism is focused on consequences and results; the sole basis of morality is determined by its usefulness or utility.  The morally “correct” action is the one the produces the most good (or the most happiness) and the least amount of suffering for the most people (pleasure over pain).[1].  

    A distinction is made between act utilitarianism (one chooses an action based upon the probable consequences) or rule utilitarianism (adhering to rules that will maximize utility).

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), founder
    • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), Bentham’s mentee, who popularized the term “utilitarianism”

    Key Concepts

    Act utilitarians place a focus on the effects of one’s individual actions (e.g. Lee Harvey Oswald’s assassination of President John F. Kennedy), while rule utilitarians focus on the effects of types of actions (such as killing or stealing) and how to handle them in terms of rules and laws.

    The greatest good for the greatest number

    Unlike deontologists, utilitarians reject orders or commands given by religious or political leaders.  Instead, utilitarianism is considered a form of consequentialism because it is the results of individual actions, laws, or policies, etc. that determine whether something is right or wrong.  Proponents argue the choice that leads to the best overall results or maximized utility is best.

    The ends justify the means

    Utilitarianism can be thought of in terms of the saying, “the ends justify the means.”  In this way, the means are not as important as the end result.

    Strengths and advantages to this approach

    There are various advantages to this kind of approach.

    • Relatively straightforward to apply
    • Avoids requirement of prior beliefs; therefore possibly accepted across cultures and religions
    • Happiness and utility is the focus.

    Weaknesses and criticisms to this approach

    • Uncertain to know fully the consequences of an action; consequences are unpredictable
    • Ignores duty
    • Ignores motives and personal integrity
    • Some argue that utilitarian-based approaches may not properly address concerns of justice for the minority population

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    • Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.  https://www.iep.utm.edu/util-a-r/

    References

    1. Habibi, Don (2001). “Chapter 3, Mill’s Moral Philosophy”. John Stuart Mill and the Ethic of Human Growth. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 89–90, 112.

  • Ethical Theories and Frameworks

    Ethical theories are important to study in order to establish a strong foundation for challenging situations or guide decisions — how do we know whether something is right or wrong? How can we use ethical theories and frameworks to help us determine appropriate legislation or whether or not a particular technology is designed to be ethical? The good news is that for many centuries, philosophers have discussed theoretical ways of understanding morality and ethics and have theorized various ways to guide moral living.

    The following is a brief summary of the most common categories of ethical theories and frameworks. Click on any of the following for further details.

    • Consequence Based (Utilitarian) – this perspective, founded by Jeremy Bentham, focuses on consequences and results and the pursuit of common good — a central goal is to maximize happiness and minimize suffering for the most people.
    • Duty Based (Deontology) – this perspective, founded by Immanuel Kant, is focused on binding rules and one’s obligation and duty to family, country, church, or other etc. One’s motive is important; results or consequences of one’s actions are not the focus.
    • Contract Based  (Rights) – this perspective is about rights and agreements between people; not necessarily about character, consequences, or principles.
    • Character Based (Virtue) – founded by Aristotle, this perspective is focused on virtue and practicing good.

  • CoSpaces: Virtual Reality Creation for the Classroom


    What is it?

    CoSpaces, described as a “making space for imagination,” is a free, cloud-based 3D virtual reality creation environment. Drag and drop 3D objects and images to create various scenes that can be viewed by anyone online, including in Google Cardboard-based virtual reality headsets. It also features an optional programming environment in which students can make their creations interactive via JavaScript or Blockly scripts.

    CoSpaces editor
    CoSpaces editor

    Why is it ideal for schools?

    Because the software and all the files are accessed online, it does not require any special installation. It’s simple and intuitive to create anything.

    Why is it useful for learning?

    Students are free to be creative, quickly building their own 3D scenes and models in minutes. It can be a good way to learn coding fundamentals.

    What are some creative ways to use it?

    Students can create their own historical recreations, scientific models, art exhibitions, simple games, interpretations of literature, infographics, etc.


    TUTORIALS

    EXPLORE IDEAS

    SAMPLE CODE TO TRY

  • Industrial Revolution vs. Constructivism

    What’s the difference between a 19th century model of education and modern day learning?

    In the 19th century, workers were all about efficiency and a one-size-fits-all model of work.

    Sadly, many classrooms still resemble this kind of factory-style learning.

    Learning today looks very different — it involves 21st century skills like creativity and systems thinking.

    View our learning theory summaries on constructivist learning and our guides on various learning tools.

  • Discovery Learning (Bruner)

    Discovery Learning (Bruner)

    Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Jerome Bruner (1915 – )

    Key Concepts

    Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned[1]. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.

    As a result, students may be more more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissionist model)[2]. Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.

    The theory is closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.

    Proponents of this theory believe that discovery learning:

    • encourages active engagement
    • promotes motivation
    • promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
    • develops creativity and problem solving skills.
    • tailors learning experiences

    Critics believe that discovery learning:

    • creates cognitive overload
    • may result in potential misconceptions
    • makes it difficult for teachers to detect problems and misconceptions

    Additional Resources and References

    References

    1. Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard educational review.
    2. Bruner, J. S. (2009). The process of education. Harvard University Press.

    [ajax_load_more]

  • Robot Turtles Review: Coding Game for Kids


    Robot Turtles: The Board Game for Little Programmers     has taken the kid coding world over by storm. It’s the highest earning Kickstarter project of all time, receiving over $600k in crowdfunding. We know it’s popular, but does it really teach kids how to code? Check out our Learning-Theories.com official video review below to see if it’s a game worth buying for your kids:

    Overview

    [wc_row][wc_column size=”three-fourth” position=”first”]

    Robot Turtles is a board game that teaches children how to think logically. Each player aims to get their “Turtle Master” to capture jewels that are placed throughout the board. The student plays programming cards that can move or turn their turtle one space at the time. They start with one card at a time, but grow to use entire functions consisting of 10 or 20 cards. The better their logic, the quicker they can reach the jewels!

    [/wc_column]

    [wc_column size=”one-fourth” position=”last”][/wc_column][/wc_row]

    Programming cards from Kickstarter

    Benefits for Education

    • Students need to use logic to win. They program their turtle’s as a sequence of steps, similar to a program.
    • It introduces a love for programming. Playing a game makes the students forget that they’re coding!

     

    What We Liked

    • It’s adaptable. Teachers or parents can adjust the difficulty of the game to suit every age.
    • It’s simple. There aren’t a lot of elements or player actions.
    • It’s fun for younger students. Winning those jewels is addictive!

     

    What We Disliked

    • No player interaction. There’s no way to affect another player’s turtle. As a result, players might lose interest in the long run.
    • Too simple. The basic game is limited in its replay-ability. Older students may get bored with the simple mechanics.  

     

    Our Score

    Ease of Use:  8 out of 10

    Fun: 7 out 10

    Learning Value:  7 out of 10

    Overall: 22 out of 30

     

    Key takeaway: It’s versatile, adaptable and fun, especially for younger kids. But it needs custom rules to engage older players.  You get it now from Amazon for about $18 — try it out for yourself for your classroom or at home.

  • Using Mind Maps (Concept Maps) in the Classroom

     

    A concept map (or mind map) is a visual tool to help a learner organize and represent what he or she knows.   They include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships between these concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Words on or between the line, referred to as the linking words/phrases, explain the relationship between the two concepts.

    There are many kinds of concept maps.  Perhaps the most common are: hierarchical concept maps, spider concept map, and flow charts.

    Hierarchical concept maps demonstrate the hierarchy between concepts.  They start with the most important topic at the top that will be used to organize all the other content (e.g. “Presidents,” “Science Games,” or “Environmental Policy”).  Then additional concepts are written, connected with lines (often with arrows to show directionality of the relationship).  For instance, relationships like A causes B (“sugar causes cavities”) or A includes B (“Presidents include Abraham Lincoln”) can be visualized with a concept with an arrow pointing to another concept, and a relational word in between.

    what-is-a-concept-map
    An example concept map (Source: http://cmap.ihmc.us/ )

    Spider concept maps have the keyword in the middle as a central concept, with various sub-topics that branch out.  These sub-topics also have additional sub-topics, and so on.

    Flowcharts are diagrams that lead the viewer down various branching paths based upon conditions.  For example, a flowchart to diagnose the root cause of a technical problem may ask: “Is the warning light flashing?” Yes / No.  The flowchart can then branch two or more different directions based upon whether something is true or false.   By following the path of a flowchart to beginning to end, the viewer can reach a certain conclusion.

     

    Theory

    Concept maps are closely related to constructivist learning theory, which posits that learners actively construct new knowledge; discovery learning theory and David Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning.  Joseph D. Novak developed concept mapping in 1970s at Cornell University to capture students’ emerging science knowledge.  His work is based on Ausubel, who underscored the importance of prior knowledge for learning.

     

    Concept Mapping Ideas for the Classroom

    Concept maps are an excellent way to improve common ground between people.  For example, a teacher can ask students to create various concept maps to demonstrate their current understanding of various topics.

    • Learners can create Personal Learning Network Maps (based upon connectivist learning theory) that can demonstrate all the various sources of knowledge that they use to learn.
    • Students can create concept maps while working on a research project to help keep track of their knowledge of a research topic or to help outline a research paper.
    • Students of English or foreign language courses can create vocabulary word maps to demonstrate the relationship between various words, definitions, word roots and affixes.

     

    Useful concept mapping tools include:

    • Poplet – an excellent mind map creation tool that also allows images, hand drawn sketches, and YouTube video clips.  Also supports collaboration, making it useful for group work or for teacher support.

     

    popplet

    • CMap Tools – a popular mind map tool developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.

     

    References

    • Nesbit, J., & Adesope, O. (2006). Learning With Concept and Knowledge Maps: A Meta-Analysis Review of Educational Research, 76 (3), 413-448 DOI: 10.3102/00346543076003413
      Redford, J., Thiede, K., Wiley, J., & Griffin, T. (2012).
    • Concept mapping improves metacomprehension accuracy among 7th graders.  Learning and Instruction, 22 (4), 262-270 DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.007

  • Abraham Maslow Biography

    In his seminal work “Motivation and Personality, Abraham Maslow wrote: “The scientist who is also something of a poet, philosopher, and even a dreamer, is almost certainly an improvement on his more constricted colleagues.” [6] While he was not talking about himself, it is nonetheless true that Abraham Maslow was not only the scientist known as the Father of Humanistic Psychology, [1] but he was also something of a poet, philosopher, and dreamer. A glance through the life and life’s work of this acclaimed figure reveals a man who spent his days urging his fellow human beings to thrive, and showing others how to do the same.

    (more…)