Learning Theories

Author: David L

  • Classical and Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

    Classical and Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

    A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end[1].

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner (1904 – 1990)
    • Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)

    Key Concepts

    What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e.g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response.

    Operant Conditioning

    Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence[2].

    • Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize.
    • Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.
    • Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever[3].

    The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations)

    Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative. We will explain this below.

    Positive and negative reinforcers

    • Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc.
    • Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed.

    The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.

    Positive and negative punishment

    Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows.

    • Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to weaken the response that follows.
    • Negative punishment is characterized by when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a undesired behavior occurs.

    The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mt4N9GSBoMI

    References

    1. Skinner, B. F. (2011). About behaviorism. Vintage.
    2. Reynolds, G. S. (1975). A primer of operant conditioning. (Rev ed).
    3. Skinner, B. F. (1948). ‘Superstition’ in the pigeon. Journal of experimental psychology, 38(2), 168.
  • Functional Context Theory (Sticht)

    Functional Context Theory (Sticht)

    Summary: Functional Context Theory is a cognitive learning theory that was developed specifically for educating adults in businesses and the military.

    Originator: Thomas Sticht

    Keywords: Job task analysis, knowledge base, literacy, learning strategies, instructional strategies

    Functional Context Theory (Sticht)

    There are various styles of learning requiring educators to learn about their students so that they can choose the most appropriate learning theory upon which to develop their instructional strategies. The functional context theory is considered a cognitive learning theory. The theory is based on the premise that students learn best when instruction is based on prior knowledge base, making use of long-term memory[1]. Instructional strategies must be developed that require students to make use of their language and problem solving skills[2].

    Although the functional content theory is a cognitive theory, it is in direct opposition to other major components of cognitive theories that hold the premise that learning occurs in stages and is totally separate and apart from any environmental influence.

    Sticht stresses that learning has everything to do with a person’s environmental influences. Instead of developing in life’s predetermined stages, instructional strategies must be developed that are based on their relevance to the students and their own personal experiences[2]. Importantly, according to Sticht’s functional context theory, learning is accomplished through the context of the students’ activity, giving them the ability to transfer their classroom learning successfully to their daily work tasks.

    Using this theory, educators combine literacy and other of the most basic skills, such as reading, in order to incorporate them with content learning. In 1975, Thomas Sticht developed this theory strictly for the education of adults[3]. His learning theory was tested in the development of a functional content course for enlisted Navy personnel. The goal of the program was to improve reading and math skills as pertaining to their specific job duties A job task analysis was conducted in order to find out exactly what level of reading and math skills soldiers needed to successfully complete their job tasks.

    The results of the program enabled the development of technical manuals and instructional materials that the Navy could use to train their enlisted personnel. The purpose of the functional content theory of learning is to ensure that all instruction is based on a prior knowledge base, making instruction inclusive of knowledge and skills that students can actually apply successfully in the work place.

    A very important component of the function content theory is literacy. The purpose is to improve adult literacy through the improvement of content, helping students use and improve their problem solving and critical thinking skills. Assessments are designed that are valid to the learning material, requiring context and content that will supply specific measurements directly related to the learning materials.

    The assessment of learning success using the function content theory is not to be based on grades, but rather, on the specific content learning and, distinguishing between academic learning and function learning.

    Sticht has used his functional content theory to develop instructional material for the health care industry, as well as a very diverse variety of jobs where specific content related learning is necessary. Programs have and instructional materials have been developed for office workers and mechanics. There are really too many fields to list.

    The premise is that adults are not going to be interested in spending time learning something that is not relative to their work. By the time one adulthood is reached, people tend to know exactly what they want and they require context specific training.

    The function content theory is coupled with the importance of adult literacy[4]. Reading and math literacy are important tenets of learning and job success. Without good literacy skills that are related to an individual’s work task, success cannot be expected.

    Function content goes hand in hand with situated learning theory, which also is based on the premise that learning is best accomplished when it is based on the student’s previous knowledge and current situation. Academic learning involves the learning of facts needed for school success, but functional learning involves learning reading and math skills directly related to a real world job situation.

    As early as 1861, teachers were working on developing experience specific instruction for freed slaves after the civil war. They strove to develop content learning that was based on the previous lives of the freedmen in order to help them learn, adding new knowledge to their previous knowledge base. Instead of beginning the education of the freemen at the level at which a child begins education, the materials were developed based on the current living environment of the freed slaves.

    Adults must not be educated like school children are educated, rather, their education must be developed based on current life situations. World War II soldiers were educated through the use of materials that related to current job tasks. The basic principles of the theory first came to light during his time period in America’s history.

    Although Sticht’s functional content theory is in opposition to other cognitive theories it is widely used for adult literacy education, preparing students for real world jobs. The use of function content has spread widely throughout adult literacy and vocational programs, preparing adults for real world job situations to enable them to be successful at their chosen vocation.

    Thomas Sticht’s extensive research into those principles used to train WWII soldiers has made a he impact on adult education. The impact on instructional strategies now used in adult vocational and literacy education. The Functional Literacy Program used the principles that underlie the basic tenets of the cognitive sciences.

    The immense impact Sticht’s research has had on adult education has created a ripple effect throughout adult educational programs, making teaching and learning more successful and effective.

    References

    1. Sticht, T. G. (1987). Functional Context Education. Workshop Resource Notebook.
    2. Sticht, T. (2000). Functional Context Education: Making Learning Relevant.
    3. Sticht, T. G. (1975). Reading for Working: A Functional Literacy Anthology.
    4. Sticht, T. G. (1988). Adult literacy education. Review of research in education,15, 59-96.

     

     

  • Gestalt Theory (von Ehrenfels)

    Gestalt Theory (von Ehrenfels)

    Summary: The Gestalt theory of learning originated in Germany, being put forth by three German theorists who were inspired by the works and ideas of the man who gave the learning theory its name. Graf Christian von Ehrenfels was a learning theorist who took the holistic approach to learning by putting forth the idea that learning takes place as students were able to comprehend a concept in its entirety, rather than broken up into parts[1].

    Key Terms: holistic, mechanical response, phenomenology, Isomorphism, factor of closure, factor of proximity, trace factor, factor of similarity, figure ground effect

    Theorists: Graf Christian von Ehrenfels, Wertheimer[2][3], Kohler[4], Koffka[5], insight learning

    Gestalt Theory

    The term “Gestalt,” comes from a German word that roughly means pattern or form.  The main tenet of the Gestalt theory is that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; learning is more than just invoking mechanical responses from learners.

    As with other learning theories, the Gestalt theory has laws of organization by which it must function. These organizational laws already exist in the make-up of the human mind and how perceptions are structured. Gestalt theorists propose that the experiences and perceptions of learners have a significant impact on the way that they learn.

    One aspect of Gestalt is phenomenology, which is the study of how people organize learning by looking at their lived experiences and consciousness. Learning happens best when the instruction is related to their real life experiences. The human brain has the ability to make a map of the stimuli caused by these life experiences. This process of mapping is called “isomorphism.”

    Whenever the brain sees only part of a picture, the brain automatically attempts to create a complete picture. This is the first organizational law, called the “factor of closure,” and it does not only apply to images, but it also applies to thoughts, feelings and sounds.

    Based upon Gestalt theory, the human brain maps elements of learning that are presented close to each other as a whole, instead of separate parts. This organizational law is called the “factor of proximity,” and is usually seen in learning areas such as reading and music, where letters and words or musical notes make no sense when standing alone, but become a whole story or song when mapped together by the human brain.

    The next organizational law of the Gestalt theory is the “factor of similarity,” which states that learning is facilitated when groups that are alike are linked together and contrasted with groups that present differing ideas. This form of Gestalt learning enables learners to develop and improve critical thinking skills.

    When observing things around us, it is normal for the eye to ignore space or holes and to see, instead, whole objects. This organizational law is called the “figure-ground effect.”

    As new thoughts and ideas are learned the brain tends to make connections, or “traces,” that are representative of the links that occur between conceptions and ideas, as well as images. This organizational law is called the “trace theory.”

    The Gestalt theory placed its main emphasis on cognitive processes of a higher order, causing the learner to use higher problem solving skills. They must look at the concepts presented to them and search for the underlying similarities that link them together into a cohesive whole. In this way, learners are able to determine specific relationships amongst the ideas and perceptions presented.

    The Gestalt theory of learning purports the importance of presenting information or images that contain gaps and elements that don’t exactly fit into the picture. This type of learning requires the learner to use critical thinking and problem solving skills. Rather than putting out answers by rote memory, the learner must examine and deliberate in order to find the answers they are seeking.

    When educators are presenting information to the students using the Gestalt theory of learning, they must ensure that their instructional strategies make use of the organizational laws presented earlier in this article.

    The Gestalt theory of learning came into the forefront of learning theories as a response to the Behaviorist theory. Other theories have evolved out of the original Gestalt learning theory, with different forms of the Gestalt theory taking shape. The field of Gestalt theories have come to be acknowledged as a cognitive-interactionist family of theories.

    The Gestalt theory purports that an individual is a whole person and the instructional strategies used to teach them will help to discover if there is anything that is mentally blocking them from learning certain new information. Teaching strategies are used to present problems as a whole and to attempt to remove any mental block from the learner so that new information can be stored.

    Designing instructional strategies that take into consideration the learner’s past and current experiences and perceptions is the key to teaching new information. In Gestalt learning theory, when the learners come across information or concepts that are not organized, the mind organizes it in an attempt to enable the learner to recognize and apply the concepts being taught.

    References

    1. Ehrenfels, C. V. (1937). On Gestalt-qualities. Psychological Review, 44(6), 521.
    2. Wertheimer, M. (1938). Laws of organization in perceptual forms.
    3. Wertheimer, M., & Riezler, K. (1944). Gestalt theory. Social Research, 78-99.
    4. Köhler, W. (1970). Gestalt psychology: An introduction to new concepts in modern psychology. WW Norton & Company.
    5. Koffka, K. (2013). Principles of Gestalt psychology (Vol. 44). Routledge.
  • Affordance Theory (Gibson)

    Affordance Theory (Gibson)

    Summary: Affordance theory states that the world is perceived not only in terms of object shapes and spatial relationships but also in terms of object possibilities for action (affordances) — perception drives action.

    Originators: J. J. Gibson (1904-1979)

    Keywords: Affordances, direct perception, ecological

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  • Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

    Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

    Summary: Elaboration theory is an instructional design theory that argues that content to be learned should be organized from simple to complex order, while providing a meaningful context in which subsequent ideas can be integrated.

    Originators: Charles Reigeluth (Indiana University) and his colleagues in the late 1970s.

    Key Terms: conceptual elaboration sequence, theoretical elaboration sequence, simplifying conditions sequence

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  • Erikson’s Stages of Development

    Erikson’s Stages of Development

    An eight stage theory of identity and psychosocial development.

    Erik Erikson, a German psychoanalyst heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud, explored three aspects of identity: the ego identity (self), personal identity (the personal idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person from another, social/cultural identity (the collection of social roles a person might play)[1].

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    Key Concepts

    Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle[2].

    1. Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old

    Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope

    During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust to the world.

    2. Toddler / Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 Years

    Autonomy vs. Shame – Will

    The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather than shame. During this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills.

    3. Preschooler: 3 to 5 Years

    Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose

    During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—”WHY?”

    While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic “Oedipal struggle” and resolve this struggle through “social role identification.” If we’re frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt.

    The most significant relationship is with the basic family.

    4. School Age Child: 6 to 12 Years

    Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence

    During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem.

    As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important.

    5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years

    Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity

    Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person. At this point, development now depends primarily upon what a person does. An adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.

    Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium). Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval. Adolescents begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.

    6. Young adult: 18 to 35

    Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love

    At the young adult stage, people tend to seek companionship and love. Some also begin to “settle down” and start families, although seems to have been pushed back farther in recent years.

    Young adults seek deep intimacy and satisfying relationships, but if unsuccessful, isolation may occur. Significant relationships at this stage are with marital partners and friends.

    7. Middle-aged Adult: 35 to 55 or 65

    Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation – Care

    Career and work are the most important things at this stage, along with family. Middle adulthood is also the time when people can take on greater responsibilities and control.

    For this stage, working to establish stability and Erikson’s idea of generativity – attempting to produce something that makes a difference to society. Inactivity and meaninglessness are common fears during this stage.

    Major life shifts can occur during this stage. For example, children leave the household, careers can change, and so on. Some may struggle with finding purpose. Significant relationships are those within the family, workplace, local church and other communities.

    8. Late Adult: 55 or 65 to Death

    Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom

    Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage involves much reflection. As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity — that is, contentment and fulfillment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution to society. Others may have a sense of despair during this stage, reflecting upon their experiences and failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering “What was the point of life? Was it worth it?”

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    • The Life Cycle Completed (Extended Version): Erikson’s own well-written book that explains the stages and identity crisis directly from the firsthand source.
    • Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set]: This impressive handbook brings “unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented literature.” presenting perspectives from many different theoretical schools and empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative, social identity theory, neo-Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science, ethnic studies).

    References

    1. Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis (No. 7). WW Norton & Company.
    2. Erikson, E. H. (1993). Childhood and society. WW Norton & Company.
  • ARCS Model of Motivational Design Theories (Keller)

    ARCS Model of Motivational Design Theories (Keller)

    Summary: According to John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design Theories, there are four steps for promoting and sustaining motivation in the learning process: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS)[1][2].

    Originator: John Keller

    Key terms: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS)

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  • ADDIE Model

    ADDIE Model



    The ADDIE model is a systematic instructional design model consisting of five phases: (1) Analysis, (2) Design, (3) Development, (4) Implementation, and (5) Evaluation. There are several versions of the ADDIE model.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Unknown. Refined by Dick and Carey[1] and others[2]

    Key Concepts

    The generic term for the five-phase instructional design model consisting of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Each step has an outcome that feeds into the next step in the sequence. There are probably over 100+ different variations of the generic ADDIE model[3].

    The five phases of ADDIE are as follows:

    Analysis

    During analysis, the designer identifies the learning problem, the goals and objectives, the audience’s needs, existing knowledge, and any other relevant characteristics. Analysis also considers the learning environment, any constraints, the delivery options, and the timeline for the project.

    Design

    A systematic process of specifying learning objectives. Detailed storyboards and prototypes are often made, and the look and feel, graphic design, user-interface and content is determined here.

    Development

    The actual creation (production) of the content and learning materials based on the Design phase.

    Implementation

    During implementation, the plan is put into action and a procedure for training the learner and teacher is developed. Materials are delivered or distributed to the student group. After delivery, the effectiveness of the training materials is evaluated.

    Evaluation

    This phase consists of (1) formative and (2) summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users. Revisions are made as necessary.

    Rapid prototyping (continual feedback) has sometimes been cited as as a way to improve the generic ADDIE model.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    References

    1. Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1996). The Systematic Design of Instruction (4th Ed.). New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
    2. Leshin, C. B., Pollock, J., & Reigeluth, C. M. (1992). Instructional Design Strategies and Tactics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Education Technology Publications.
    3. Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional design: The ADDIE approach (Vol. 722). Springer Science & Business Media.
  • Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

    Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

    Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

    Key Concepts

    Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)[1][2]. Vygotsky’s work was largely unkown to the West until it was published in 1962.

    Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development.

    Social Interaction

    Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)”.[2]

    The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

    The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

    The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

    The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

    Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences[3]. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.

    Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

    Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    • Luis C. Moll: L.S. Vygotsky and Education (Routledge Key Ideas in Education): An accessible, introductory volume that provides a good summary of Vygtoskian core concepts, including the sociocultural genesis of human thinking, a developmental approach to studying human thinking, and the power of cultural mediation in understanding and transforming educational practices. Well written and worth a look.

    References

    1. Vygotsky, L. S. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard university press.
    2. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development.Readings on the development of children, 23(3), 34-41.
    3. Crawford, K. (1996). Vygotskian approaches in human development in the information era. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 31(1-2), 43-62.
  • Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)

    Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)

    Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

    Key Concepts

    Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) observed his children (and their process of making sense of the world around them) and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes new information encountered[1][2][3]. He posited that children progress through 4 stages and that they all do so in the same order. These four stages are:

    Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old)

    The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and reality (and how things work) through interactions with the environment. It is able to differentiate between itself and other objects. Learning takes place via assimilation (the organization of information and absorbing it into existing schema) and accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated and the schemata have to be modified to include the object.

    Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)

    The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important features.

    Concrete operations (ages 7 to 11)

    As physical experience accumulates, accomodation is increased. The child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.

    Formal operations (beginning at ages 11 to 15)

    Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage, the person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgements. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning. His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    References

    1. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children (Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 18-1952). New York: International Universities Press.
    2. Piaget, J. (1959). The language and thought of the child (Vol. 5). Psychology Press. Chicago
    3. Piaget, J. (1976). Piaget’s theory. In Piaget and his school (pp. 11-23). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.