Learning Theories

Author: krist2366

  • Intrinsically motivating instruction (Malone)

    Intrinsically motivating instruction (Malone)

    Summary: Intrinsically motivating instruction takes place in computer gaming software when it provides players with choice around three key categories: challenge, curiosity, and fantasy.

    Originators and Key Contributors: Thomas W. Malone

    Keywords: challenge, choice, computer games, curiosity, fantasy, intrinsic motivation

    Intrinsically Motivating Instruction

    In trying to understand what made computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) fun and engaging, Dr. Thomas W. Malone studied computer games[1]. In doing so, Malone developed a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. The three categories which comprise his theory are challenge, fantasy, and curiosity[2].

    Challenge: Each challenge must have a series of goals, which can be personally meaningful to the player and/or may be generated by the game to keep the player engaged. The game provides the player feedback on progress toward the goal throughout the game play. Because the computer game’s outcome is uncertain, this keeps the player engaged and motivated. When a player is challenged and succeeds through the struggle, a player’s self-esteem can increase, as long as the computer game’s feedback is constructive and supports learning. An optimal challenge should be neither too difficult nor too easy.

    Fantasy: Malone defines fantasy as the “mental images” the players create based on interacting with the environment. The most effective fantasies in computer games are those which are more fully integrated with the content to be learned (intrinsic). Incorporating intrinsic fantasies creates more engagement, which increases memory of the material, because they may satisfy players’ emotional needs and help them learn skills within a meaningful context. (An example that Malone describes is an Adventure game where players practice reading maps, writing instructions, and feeling excited, puzzled, and triumphant as they proceed through it.)

    Curiosity: Two types of curiosity are important to successful computer game creation—sensory and cognitive. Sensory curiosity is activated by the aesthetics of the game (its look, sounds, feedback, authentic creation of a world or event). Cognitive curiosity is activated by presenting opportunities for the player to better their knowledge.

    When a computer game is designed based on this framework, players are more motivated to play and learn[3].

    References

    1. Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5(4), 333-369.
    2. Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 3(1987), 223-253.
    3. Lepper, M. R., & Malone, T. W. (1987). Intrinsic motivation and instructional effectiveness in computer-based education. Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 3, 255-286.
  • Digital citizenship

    Digital citizenship

    Summary: Digital citizenship is the state of having access to the Internet and communication technologies that help promote equal opportunity, democracy, technology skills, and human rights.

    Originators and Key Contributors: Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, Ramona S. McNeal

    Keywords: citizenship, civic engagement, community, online society, rights

    Digital citizenship is the state of having access to Internet and Communication Technologies (ICTs) that help promote equal opportunity, democracy, technology skills, and human rights.

    Mossberger, Tolbert, and McNeal developed the phrase “digital citizenship” in response to the Internet becoming a place where many people consumed and discussed media and information[1]. Having consistent Internet access meant more exposure to a wider range of information and viewpoints and the opportunity to engage in dialog.

    When people have “full” digital citizenship, they have consistent access to the Web, and they use it regularly to learn skills, gain information, participate in conversations around issues that matter to them, create media about topics of concern, and perhaps even communicate with an elected official about their issues or concerns. They have more economic stability, which is based on having access to skills and information that may directly benefit their lives.

    When people do not have Internet access, they get less information and, therefore, cannot make as informed decisions for themselves or their wider communities. They also have less economic opportunity and lower skills, which creates harmful economic inequity. This creates lower levels of participation in the political process.

    In order to support a healthy democracy in the Internet age, it is recommended that governments provide their citizens with the digital tools to help them be fully included in socio-political processes to make their lives and extended communities better. When groups in society have widely varying states of digital citizenship, this can create a “digital divide” in which wealthier, more educated group have more Internet access than more poor, less educated groups. One solution for supporting widespread digital citizenship is by promoting more Internet access in people’s homes.

    To read more about digital citizenship, check out this book: Digital Citizenship–The Internet, Society, and Participation

    References

    1. Mossberger, K., Tolbert, C. J., & McNeal, R. S. (2007). Digital citizenship: The Internet, society, and participation. MIT Press.
  • 21st Century Skills (P21 and others)

    21st Century Skills (P21 and others)

    Summary: Skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly digital and connected age; includes digital literacy, traditional literacy, content knowledge, media literacy, and learning/innovation skills.

    Originators & Proponents: Groups – United States Department of Education, Partnership for 21st Century Skills, MacArthur Foundation; Individuals – Henry Jenkins[1], Mimi Ito, John Seely Brown

    Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills, readiness, interdisciplinary learning, problem-solving, ICT (information and communication technologies)

    21st Century Skills (Partnership for 21st Century Skills and other groups and individuals)

    The 21st Century Skills initiative is an education standards and reform movement, located primarily in the United States, that is focused on improving what US public school students must learn in school so that they are better prepared to succeed in their school and career lives. The term “21st century skills” includes the following skill sets:

    • Life/career skills: adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership & responsibility, productivity & accountability, social & cross-cultural skills
    • Core subjects: English/language arts, mathematics, arts, science, history, geography and others
    • 21st century themes: civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial  literacy (including economic, business, and entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy
    • Information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy
    • Learning/innovation skills: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, problem solving

    Students are expected to master these skills and understand these themes while learning core subject content in meaningful, interdisciplinary way. Teachers, administrators, schools, and districts are expected to use these guidelines, known as the P21 Framework, as a foundation for developing curriculum, assessments, and standards that they deem appropriate for their students.

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  • Multimodality (Kress)

    Multimodality (Kress)

    Summary: Multimodality is a theory which looks at how people communicate and interact with each other, not just through writing (which is one mode) but also through speaking, gesture, gaze, and visual forms (which are many modes).

    Originators & Proponents: Gunther Kress[1]

    Keywords: communication, design literacy, expression, gesture, linguistics, medium, mode, multimedia, semiotic resources, sign, visual literacy, writing

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  • Situated Cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid)

    Situated Cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid)

    Summary: Situated cognition is the theory that people’s knowledge is embedded in the activity, context, and culture in which it was learned. It is also referred to as “situated learning.”

    Originators & proponents: John Seely Brown, Allan Collins, Paul Duguid

    Keywords: activity, authentic domain activity, authentic learning, cognitive apprenticeship, content-specific learning, context, culture, everyday learning, knowledge, legitimate peripheral participation, socio-cultural learning, social construction of knowledge, social interaction, teaching methods

    Situated cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid)

    Situated cognition is a theory which emphasizes that people’s knowledge is constructed within and linked to the activity, context, and culture in which it was learned[1][2].

    Learning is social and not isolated, as people learn while interacting with each other through shared activities and through language, as they discuss, share knowledge, and problem-solve during these tasks.

    For example, while language learners can study a dictionary to increase their vocabulary, this often solitary work only teaches basic parts of learning a language; when language learners talk with someone who is a native speaker of the language, they will learn important aspects of how these words are used in the native speaker’s home culture and how the words are used in everyday social interactions.

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  • Learner-centered design

    Learner-centered design

    Summary: Learner centered design focuses on creating software for heterogeneous groups of learners who need scaffolding as they learn while completing constructivist activities.

    Originators and Key Contributors: Elliot Soloway, Mark Guzdian, Kenneth E. Hay

    Keywords: constructivism, learner-centered design, learners, scaffolding, software

    Learner-centered Design

    Learner-centered design (LCD) theory emphasizes the importance of supporting the learners’ growth and motivational needs in designing software[1]. In addition, since learners have different learning needs and learn in different ways, the software must be designed for the specific learner-audience.

    The concept of scaffolds is central to learner-centered design. In order to support learners optimally, software should be designed with scaffolds that will support the learners as they need it. Examples of scaffolds in software are hints, explanation and encouragement to help learners understand a process, and questions to help learners reflect on what they are learning[2].

    Software scaffolds that support learners best are adaptive, meaning that they change according to what the learner needs in any learning moment. When a learner needs more support, the software provides an increase in feedback to help the learner grow, stay engaged, and progress in mastering a skill. When the learner is reaching mastery, the software will provide reduced scaffolds in response to the learner’s increased skill level.

    In focusing on learner-centered design, four elements must be addressed in designing the software. They are:

    1. Context: The goal, purpose, and audience of the software
    2. Interface: The front end and/or aesthetics of the software that learners interact with
    3. Tasks: What the learners will do in the software
    4. Tools: What is needed in the software to support the tasks that students will do; these can include scaffolds

    Designing software from a LCD perspective keeps the learner in mind and, if done well, provides an effective and meaningful learning experience[3].

    For more information on learner-centered design, read The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences.

    References

    1. Soloway, E., Guzdial, M., & Hay, K. E. (1994). Learner-centered design: The challenge for HCI in the 21st century. interactions, 1(2), 36-48.
    2. Soloway, Elliot, et al. “Learning theory in practice: Case studies of learner-centered design.” Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. ACM, 1996.
    3. Quintana, C., Carra, A., Krajcik, J., & Soloway, E. (2001). Learner-centered design: Reflections and new directions.
  • Connectivism (Siemens, Downes)

    Connectivism (Siemens, Downes)

    Summary: Connectivism is a learning theory that explains how Internet technologies have created new opportunities for people to learn and share information across the World Wide Web and among themselves.

    Originators & Proponents: George Siemens, Stephen Downes

    Keywords: communication, connection, distributed cognition, distributed learning, information, Internet, knowledge sharing, links, massive open online course (MOOC), nodes, online, open educational resources (OER), social networks

    Connectivism[1][2]

    Connectivism is a learning theory that explains how Internet technologies have created new opportunities for people to learn and share information across the World Wide Web and among themselves. These technologies include Web browsers, email, wikis, online discussion forums, social networks, YouTube, and any other tool which enables the users to learn and share information with other people.

    A key feature of connectivism is that much learning can happen across peer networks that take place online. In connectivist learning, a teacher will guide students to information and answer key questions as needed, in order to support students learning and sharing on their own. Students are also encouraged to seek out information on their own online and express what they find. A connected community around this shared information often results.

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  • Anchored Instruction (Bransford, Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt)

    Anchored Instruction (Bransford, Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt)

    Summary: Anchored Instruction involves the use of an “anchor” material or media, often a video, to create a shared experience among learners and a beginning point for further learning on a topic.

    Originators & Proponents: Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV), John D. Bransford

    Keywords: anchor, case-based learning, case study, curriculum, discussion, shared experience, situated cognition, social learning, technology, video

    Anchored instruction (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, Bransford)

    Anchored instruction involves the use of an “anchor” material or piece of media, often a video, to create a shared experience among learners and a beginning point for further learning on a topic[1]. The anchor video should support a few key instructional objectives. It should be:

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  • Semiotics (de Saussure, Barthes, Bakhtin)

    Semiotics (de Saussure, Barthes, Bakhtin)

    Summary: Semiotics is the study of how people make meaning through both linguistic and non-linguistic ways. It is a philosophical theory concerned with understanding how people use signs and symbols in meaning-making.

    Originators & Proponents: Ferdinand de Saussure[1], Roland Barthes, Mikhail Bakhtin

    Keywords: communication, connotation, culture, denotation, icon, index, lexicon, linguistics, logic, meaning, mode, rules, signifier, signs, sign systems, symbols

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  • Social Network Analysis (Scott, Prell)

    Social Network Analysis (Scott, Prell)

    Summary: Social Network Analysis looks at how people within social networks (for example: families, clubs, Facebook groups) relate to each other and what these interactions say about both the individual actors and the entire social network.

    Originators & Proponents: John Scott, Christina Prell, Stephen P. Borgatti, Martin G. Everett, Jeffrey C. Johnson

    Keywords: actors, bonds, clustering, cohesion, communication, community, connection, interaction, mapping, modeling, network theory, nodes, social network diagrams, social relationships, ties, visualizations

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