Learning Theories

Author: Madeline

  • Model of Hierarchical Complexity

    The Model of Hierarchical Complexity, sometimes referred to as the MHC in educational psychology, is a framework used to explore and organize the patterns of human development. It is a theory used when working with behavioral development in particular.

    The MHC functions to give rank or order to the developmental complexity of a certain behavior. It is the basis for other hierarchical theories of development, such as Piaget. It was originally developed by Michael Commons, an American behavioral scientist.

    Contributors: Michael Commons (1939 — present)

    Key Concepts

    Task Analysis

    MHC is based on a system of task analysis in which tasks are broken down into minute steps and then analyzed based on their complexity in relation to the individual’s development. [1] The task is initiated when the individual is presented with a stimulus, and their behavior(s) in reaction to that task are what are analyzed for their developmental complexity. For example, an infant presented with a bright-colored toy would not reach toward the object or even train their eyes in its direction, but an older baby further along in the development process would do so.

    Stages of hierarchical complexity

    0 — calculatory stage

    Characterized by having solely the capacity for computation, this stage functions as the “control” of sorts as it can be used to describe the hierarchical complexity of computers.

    1 — automatic stage

    Individual can respond to one environmental stimulus at a time.

    2 — sensory or motor stage

    Individual can move their limbs and parts of their face and view things. They begin to react to conditioned stimuli and form responses with discrimination.

    3 — circular-sensory-motor stage

    Individual can reach for, touch, or grab things. In terms of speech, individual will babble and is beginning to grasp phonemes (word parts).

    4 — sensory-motor stage

    Individual responds to stimuli based on their established concept of it.

    5 — nominal stage

    Individual can use names for objects as well as make commands. They begin to identify relationships between the concepts they have established and can name those as well.

    6 — sentential stage

    Individual can imitate others and acquire words or sentences through imitation, as well as following a sequence of acts presented by others.

    7 — preoperational stage

    Individual practices early deductive reasoning, engages in imitation, and can follow and tell a story or sequence of events.

    8 — primary stage

    Individual begins to make simple logical reasoning with regard to rules and time, also begins to grasp simple arithmetic.

    9 — concrete stage

    Individual can engage more deeply with arithmetic problems, understand more about social and group relations, and establish relationships with others and self.

    10 — abstract stage

    Individual begins to understand variables such as stereotypes and logic skills become more formalized.

    11 — formal stage

    Individual can argue using linear logic, can solve problems with one unknown, such as in algebra.

    12 — systematic stage

    Individual can establish and understand systems and understands relationships and logic problems with more than one variable or unknown.

    13 — metasystematic stage

    Individual can form relationships between systems and understand similarities and differences.

    14 — paradigmatic stage

    Individual can fit these new “metasystems” to form larger-picture paradigms, as well as point out inconsistencies between the various metasystems.

    15 — cross-paradigmatic stage

    Individual can see relationship between multiple paradigms, such as “this perspective is like that perspective because they both incorporate…”

    16 — meta-cross-paradigmatic or performative-recursive stage

    Individual can reflect on the similarities and differences between paradigmatic relationships. For example, “these two perspectives are inter-related because…”

    These stages are linked to an age or developmental milestone in an individual’s life in various stage models. Some stage-based theories even use the same names as the MHC’s 16 stages, though most do not encompass it in its entirety.

    Criticism

    Some developmental psychologists feel that the MHC phases are overly precise. Their criticism is that the MHC goes into too much detail of the various complexities of task analysis, and that the phases are less significant beyond stage 12, the systematic stage.

    References

    1. Commons, M. L. (2008). Introduction to the model of hierarchical complexity and its relationship to postformal action. World Futures, 64(5-7), 305-320.

  • Flipped Classrooms

    Flipped classrooms are a method of instruction and form of blended learning. This model gets its name from the way it “flips” the traditional classroom model. Using this method, students watch videos or listen to lectures at home. When they come to class meetings, instructors facilitate group work and other activities that would typically be considered “homework.”

    The idea of flipped classrooms emerged from a 1993 publication by researcher Alison King called “From Sage on the Stage to Guide on the Side.” While the work did not explicitly call for the use of “flipping” classrooms, it did call for the use of class time to give meaning to the information students learn. For this assertion, King’s work is often considered the foundation for flipped classrooms.

    Contributors:  Alison King

    Key Concepts

    Variations

    There is no unilateral consensus on what constitutes a flipped classroom. Rather, the definition is expansive, and can describe nearly any structure in which lectures are pre-recorded and received at home and activities are facilitated during class meetings, thereby flipping the traditional class set-up.

    Instead of lecturing during class time, instructors typically function as facilitators. They might use the time in-class to clarify information from the at-home lectures or to gauge student understanding and growth through various activities. Other instructors might only adopt some elements of the flipped classroom model, or to only flip some classes during the semester. The model is highly adaptable and able to suit a variety of class environments.

    Significance

    Many students in typical lecture-style classes report struggling to keep up with the speaker and retain the information that is being delivered. By giving pre-recorded lectures, students are able to take their time at home to listen, understand, and take notes. The lectures are also available later on for review alongside the students’ notes and activities from class, which can work as a study aid. All this aids student retention of information, engagement during class, and enhances their understanding of the material. [1]

    In addition, for students with disabilities such as a hearing impairment, or for students for whom English a second language, having additional time to learn material before accessing and utilizing the information they have learned in class can be crucial. Using classroom meetings to practice applying a concept can help instructors to guide learning, and to help students to self-assess and redirect their focus.

    Costs and Benefits

    While there are significant benefits to the flipped classroom model, there are also some difficulties that may arise. For one, flipping the classroom requires significant preparation on the part of the instructor. Not only do they have to pre-plan and record their lectures, they also have to utilize technology to make them available to students and troubleshoot any errors that may arise. If their chosen technology fails, the student may not be able to receive the lecture, and will be unprepared for class. One some level, this is inevitable, but at the same time, it can disrupt student learning and derail class meeting time.

    In the same respect, flipping the classroom places more responsibility on the student than in traditional models. As mentioned in the example above, it requires students to come to class prepared, which leaves a lot of room for potential derailment. However, at the same time, with this responsibility comes freedom: students might be more responsible for their own preparation, but they are able to do so however they choose, and class time is devoted to peer-to-peer interaction and personal experimentation. This promotes both social development through group and partner work, but also fosters independence and self-esteem as students put their knowledge to the test individually and collaboratively. [2]

    References

    1. Herreid, C. F., & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case studies and the flipped classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), 62-66.
    2. 2. Bishop, J. L., & Verleger, M. A. (2013, June). The flipped classroom: A survey of the research. In ASEE National Conference Proceedings, Atlanta, GA (Vol. 30, No. 9, pp. 1-18).

  • Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model of Development (Bronfenbrenner)

    Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model is a theory of educational psychology that studies human development over time.

    Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-American developmental psychologist whose bioecological model was integral to the formation of American Headstart pre-kindergarten programs. [1] He was influenced by fellow developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky. The model suggests the interactions between the individual and their environment, categorized into various systems, shape their development over time.

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  • Metacognition (Flavell)

    Metacognition is defined in simplest terms as “thinking about your own thinking.” The root “meta” means “beyond,” so the term refers to “beyond thinking.” Specifically, this means that it encompasses the processes of planning, tracking, and assessing your own understanding or performance.

    The phrase was termed by American developmental psychologist John H. Flavell in 1979, and the theory developed throughout the 1980s among researchers working with young children in early cognitive stages.

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  • Maker Spaces

    A maker space is a community space in a school or other gathering place where students are able to take part in hands-on learning in creative ways. They are called maker spaces because they provide opportunities for students to design, create, manufacture, and invent new things. They are usually housed in school libraries or other community spaces.

    Some would argue that the seeds of the maker space movement have been in existence forever, but the official idea emerged in 2005 after Make: magazine launched. The magazine was founded by Dale Dougherty, and is published bimonthly on their website, which serves as an online community of DIY “makers.”

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